Genetic engineering, food and the environment

About the author: Anne Ingeborg Myhr, SVP Biotechnology and Circular Economy, NORCE

Sustainable food production 

Genetic engineering has become a vital component of modern biotechnology and is applied in both basic and applied research. One important focus area is genetic modification, where genes from a bacterium, for instance, are inserted into plants or animals (transgenes). Also, genes can be transferred from closely related or the same species (cisgenes), or a gene within an organism can also be directly altered. Some modifications are designed for short-term, non-heritable effects, such as through plant grafting or RNA interference in plants (for example with the aim of harming insect pests). New gene-editing technologies like CRISPR permit more efficient and affordable than genetic modification techniques.  Reports from international organisations, including the UN’s Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), suggest that gene editing could be one of several valuable tools used to tackle challenges in disease control, food safety and climate adaptation in agriculture, thereby supporting the development of sustainable food production. 
 
Norway’s Genetic Technology Act is unique in requiring five criteria (environment, health, ethical justifiability, societal benefit and sustainability) to be assessed before a GMO is approved. Sustainability, societal benefit and ethical responsibility are considered together, emphasising that researchers and organisations looking to develop GMOs also carry a responsibility in this context. In laboratory or controlled environments, GMO research and usage require safety approval to prevent GMOs being released into the environment and to protect those handling them. Assessments of sustainability, societal and ethical aspects are especially relevant for applied research designed to create products to be used in food, feed, drugs or environmental solutions. To date, Norway has only approved for sale genetically modified carnations and an oil from genetically modified rapeseed. The carnations, which have been modified to produce various shades of purple, are deemed to present no risk for health and the environment. The rapeseed oil, which has been modified to contain higher omega-3 levels, is intended for use in farmed salmon feed. Norwegians have historically been highly sceptical about GMOs due to health and environmental concerns, but attitudes appear to be shifting. People are now more interested in the purpose and applications of the technology, such as whether it reduces climate impact or improves animal welfare, rather than the mere fact that it is a GMO. New technologies like CRISPR can be used to develop plants and animals better suited to Norwegian conditions, such as sterile salmon and blight-resistant potatoes. 
 
Sustainability and environmental risk are closely linked. This impacts how we conduct meaningful risk assessments in research. These assessments consider potential consequences across various climate and environmental parameters, weighing both risk and uncertainty. Research on the effects of GM microorganisms, plants and animals also raises several fundamental questions, such as: What research methods should we use to identify risks? What standards should guide our assessments of GM plant risks? Should we use conventional agriculture as a baseline, or should we compare to organic farming? Different standards can lead to different conclusions, raising ethical questions about how we handle risk and uncertainty. (See also Risk and uncertainty and Ethical Guidelines for Research in Natural Sciences and Technology.) 
 
Beyond assessing environmental and health risks, sustainability requirements also entail considering whether the product being developed supports social and economic sustainability. Socially responsible research into the use of gene editing and GMOs therefore requires us to engage Norwegian industry stakeholders, organisations and community representatives to discuss the key challenges we face, whether genetic engineering could help address them, and how to collaborate to find the best solutions. These initiatives must also take account of ethical challenges around conflicts of interest and independence in research if we are to successfully facilitate genuine collaboration and co-creation. 

Microorganisms and genetic engineering 

In Norway, microorganisms are used in laboratory-based research and innovation projects. They are used among other things as hosts to isolate and analyse promising molecules found through bioprospecting with the aim of discovering new drugs, chemicals for industrial use or food additives. In commercial production, genetically modified organisms are often used to produce these molecules, since harvesting them directly from nature is usually neither cost-effective nor sustainable. 
 
Microorganisms are also used in research aimed at developing new or more effective vaccines (see Clinical trials). This was the case with two of the COVID-19 vaccines, which were based on a genetically modified virus. Microorganisms are also used in industrial processes such as fermentation, where bacterial and yeast cells convert sugars, gases and residual waste into new chemicals, enzymes and bio-products like proteins and fatty acids for food and feedstocks. This work is also performed in laboratories or controlled production facilities with strict HSE and biosafety protocols to prevent genetically modified microorganisms from being released into the environment. Research is also ongoing to modify microorganisms to improve their ability to clean up pollution (bioremediation) from mining and oil industries. However, these organisms have not yet been released into natural environments due to uncertainties surrounding the risks involved (see Risk and uncertainty). For more on advanced genetic engineering applications, see Synthetic biology. 

Insects and gene drives 

Climate change is expected to cause insect-borne diseases to spread to new areas. Genetic engineering is being used not only to monitor these diseases, but also to prevent insects from transmitting them. In smaller regions of the USA and Brazil, genetically modified insects have been released to curb the spread of mosquito-borne diseases like malaria, Zika, and yellow fever. Various approaches are being trialled, including sterilising mosquitoes and limiting their ability to fly. Researchers are also investigating how genetically modified qualities can be inherited and propagated through insect populations. This approach, called a gene drive, could eventually lead to the extinction of local insect populations and make areas free from malaria and other mosquito-borne diseases. However, assessing how these modified insects, including those designed to act as gene drives, impact ecosystems and other wildlife is complex and presents significant challenges for research. This raises an ethical issue in research: How can we conduct effective ecosystem research and address this level of complexity? (See Risk and uncertainty.) 
 
Another important ethical issue in research is balancing benefit and risk. There is a major need for biological methods to combat diseases, but how do we weigh the benefits (like reducing malaria) against the uncertainties of unforeseen environmental impacts? And at the same time, how do we ensure that we adhere to the precautionary principle? Decisions about releasing gene drives require adequate information-sharing and dialogue with local authorities and communities. Local engagement is essential for effective monitoring to determine if the intervention works and to identify any unexpected impacts. As mentioned above, this could affect the independence of research. 

Patents 

In Norway, there is political disagreement over patenting and intellectual property rights in genetic engineering, including when it comes to patenting naturally occurring cell lines, microorganisms, plants and animals. This divide was particularly clear with the Bondevik government during the debate over the EU’s controversial Patent Directive in 2003. The commercial use of genes is especially relevant for enhancing quality, growth and disease resistance in livestock and crops, as well as in producing drugs and industrial products. 
 
Patents are regarded as beneficial since they promote innovation and the development of new products and processes. However, patents can also restrict the free flow of knowledge and data, potentially slowing the development of new products and tools. The ongoing debate over CRISPR patent rights neatly illustrates this point. In addition, some criticism of patents is value-driven (“Life cannot be patented”) and often brings up the question of rightful ownership. 

References 

The Norwegian Biotechnology Advisory Board (Bioteknologirådet). Genmodifiserte plantar og mat. Available here (only in Norwegian): https://www.bioteknologiradet.no/temaer/genmodifiserte-planter-og-mat/ 
 
Bugge, Annechen Bahr (2020) GMO-mat eller ikke. Har det vært endringer i forbrukernes syn på genmodifisert mat fra 2017 til 2020? SIFO-rapport nr. 3-2020:  
Available here (only in Norwegian): https://oda.oslomet.no/oda-xmlui/handle/20.500.12199/3001 
 
European Commission (2021) European Group on Ethics in Science and New Technologies opinion on the Ethics of Genome Editing. Available here: https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2777/659034 
 
Delgado, Ana and Åm, Heidrun (2022) Biologisk mangfold og selvråderett – hvorfor digitale genetiske data ikke er «den nye oljen». Nytt Norsk Tidsskrift. Available here (only in Norwegian): https://www.idunn.no/doi/10.18261/issn.1504-3053-2021-01-02-05 
 
FAO (2022) Gene editing and agrifood systems. Available here: https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/cc3579en/ 
 
GeneInnovate (2020) Norske forbrukeres holdninger til genredigering i landbruk og akvakultur. Available here (only in Norwegian): https://www.bioteknologiradet.no/filarkiv/2020/04/Rapport-holdninger-til-genredigering.pdf 
 
Imran, Yousef og kollegaer (2021) Biopiracy: Abolish Corporate Hijacking of Indigenous Medicinal Entities, Scientific World Journal 2021 Februar 18. Available here: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33679261/ 
 
Maqsood, Quratulain and colleagues (2023) Bioengineered microbial strains for detoxification of toxic environmental pollutants, Environmental Research, 227, 15 Juni 2023. Available here: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0013935123004577?via%3Dihub

This article has been translated from Norwegian by Samtext International AS.